- Introduction
- Physical Infrastructure
2.1 Computer Network
2.2 IP Address
2.3 Protocols
2.4 Services
2.4 Rules and Conventions - Network Access Devices
3.1 Wired Networks
3.2 Wireless Networks
3.3 Satellite Networks - Physical Media
- Core Networks
5.1 Packet Switching
5.2 Circuit Switching - Network Congestion and Performance
6.1 Delay
6.2 Queuing Delay
6.3 Packet Loss
6.4 End-to-end Delay
6.5 Throughput - Protocol Stacks
7.1 Encapsulation
7.2 Five-layer Model
7.3 Major Protocol Stacks - Conclusion
1. Introduction
In this post, we will discuss the physical infrastructure and hardware components of computer networks, network access devices and physical media, core networks, network congestion and performance, and the protocol stacks used in the communication process. We will also explore the principles, rules and conventions associated with network communication. By the end of this tutorial, you will have a good understanding of network communication fundamentals. So let’s get started!
2. Physical Infrastructure
Physical infrastructure is one of the most important components of IT systems. It is used to set up and implement various elements of an IT network and services. Without physical infrastructure, reliable communication and data processing would not be possible.
2.1. Computer Network
One of the key components of physical infrastructure is a computer network. It is an arrangement of computers and connected devices that communicate with each other through a variety of protocols. The size and complexity of the network depend on the requirements of the company. For example, a large company may have multiple levels of networks including Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN). LAN facilitates interactive connections between computers within a limited area, while a WAN covers a much larger area.
Elements such as cables, routers, and switches are used in the network to link it to other networks. Routers enable information to be routed to different networks and switches allow many devices to access the same network.
2.2. IP Address
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is an identifier assigned to a computer that is used to distinguish it from other computers on a network. It includes numbers and letters that allow the computer to be identified in a specific network. It is important for network communications as it consists of an address and a port. The address allows the computer to be identified on the network while the port allows the computer to access other computers as required.
2.3. Protocols
Protocols are sets of rules and guidelines that govern the communication between computers on a network. It is a set of instructions that provide instructions on how computers interact with each other. It also sets the standards for data transmission and formatting. These protocols are essential for enabling the machines to understand each other and send data across different networks.
2.4. Services
The physical infrastructure of a computer network also allows for services to be provided. Services such as remote access, email, and file storage are provided to users of the network. These services make use of the physical infrastructure, enabling users to access the network from anywhere as long as they have access to an internet connection.
2.5. Rules and Conventions
Network infrastructure is not just about hardware and cables, but also about a set of rules and conventions. These rules help to ensure proper usage of the network. For example, some rules may be related to security, to ensure that the network is not compromised. Other rules may be aimed at data integrity and privacy, to protect valuable data and information. Overall, these rules and conventions help to ensure that the network functions as expected and that it leads to a better user experience.
The physical infrastructure of a computer network is essential for enabling reliable and efficient communication and data processing. Network components such as computers, cables, routers, switches and IP addresses are essential for the network to be operational. Protocols provide guidelines for how devices will interact on the network. Services such as remote access, email, and file storage make use of the infrastructure to provide users with access to the network and data. Finally, a set of rules and conventions are set up to ensure proper usage and efficiency of the network. Together, these components form the physical infrastructure of a computer network.
3. Network Access Devices
Network access devices are the hardware devices used for connecting computers and other network devices with the networks. These devices allow both wired and wireless connections to internal and external networks. They are an integral part of a network and perform the important task of providing access to network services and resources.
Network access devices come in different types depending on the type of network used. Wired networks use physical cables, such as an Ethernet cable, to connect two or more computers. Wireless networks use radio signals to connect computers, while satellite networks use satellites in order to transmit data.
3.1 Wired Networks
Wired networks are the most common type of network. They use either a wired medium, such as an Ethernet cable, or wireless connections such as a Wi-Fi network. Ethernet cables provide fast and reliable network connections, while Wi-Fi networks are more prone to interference and are therefore considered less secure. Wired networks are suitable for connection between nearby computers, such as in an office or in a home network.
3.2 Wireless Networks
Wireless networks allow users to connect even when they are further apart, such as in a large corporate network. Wireless network access devices include Wi-Fi access points, routers, bridges, modems and repeaters. They transmit and receive data using radio waves that require no physical cables to be setup. Wireless networks are becoming increasingly popular in both corporate and home networks, due to the ability to access the network from any location.
3.3 Satellite Networks
Satellite networks are used for communication over long distances, such as between different countries or continents. The satellite network access devices used are known as satellite modems, which are used to send and receive data from the satellite. The satellite network is used to broadcast digital television and also for fast internet connection.
Network access devices play an important role in connecting computers and other network devices with the networks. Wired, wireless and satellite network access devices are used depending on the size, distance and security requirements of the network.
4. Physical Media
In the context of network infrastructure, the term physical media refers to the physical layer, or strands of cable, required for a network to exist. Physical media are the tangible, connecting points between network components, such as a modem and a router. Network engineers must tap into the physical layer to examine, monitor, and troubleshoot any problems that may occur along a network.
When discussing physical media in the context of networks, two primary forms are acknowledged: copper-based cables and fiber-optic cables. Copper-based cables, such as Cat5 or Cat6 wire, are the most commonly used forms of physical media today due to their affordability and ease of use. Cat5 or Cat6 cables are the cables used to run a network from a router to a computer, printer, or other network components. Fiber-optic cables, on the other hand, are more expensive and difficult to use than their copper-based counterparts but offer faster speeds and greater distances between network components.
As networks grow in size, it becomes increasingly important to understand the intricacies of physical media. Most networks are comprised of a series of cables and connectors running through walls, ceilings, and other areas of the building. The cables that make up the network must be installed securely and in compliance with industry standards in order to ensure proper functioning.
One of the most important aspects of physical media is its ability to transmit data signals effectively. Data is transmitted along cables through the use of electromagnetic signals, and the electrical resistance between wires must be balanced in order to ensure that data is transmitted at the desired speed and reliability. Additionally, physical media must also be certified in order to comply with government regulations.
In addition to the physical layer of media, there is also the logical layer. This layer consists of protocols and networking software, such as TCP/IP. In order for a network to operate as desired, the logical layer must also be installed and configured in order for messaging to be exchanged between connected devices.
In the end, physical media is the backbone of a network. Without the physical layer, data would have nowhere to travel and logical elements such as protocols and software would be rendered useless. As such, network engineers must ensure that their physical media is installed properly and maintained to ensure optimal performance.
5. Core Networks
Core networks are the network infrastructures and architectures used to support communications on a global or regional scale. They are composed of switching and transmission equipment, communication links, and other associated devices. Core networks are responsible for routing traffic between different networks, providing enhanced network services, and enabling communication services to reach users.
5.1 Packet Switching
Packet switching is the main technology used in core networks. In packet switching, digital messages are broken up into small pieces called “packets,” and are routed independently through the network. As each packet includes the destination address of its destination, packets can be routed differently, resulting in lower latency and higher throughput.
5.2 Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is another technology used in core networks, typically in addition to packet switching. In circuit switching, a digital message is sent over a physical dedicated connection between two endpoints. This dedicated connection is persistent during the transmission, providing end-to-end reliability and support for real-time applications such as voice and video calls. Circuit switching is also used in congestion control algorithms to avoid overloading the network with data.
Both of these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, which makes them both important components of core networks. Circuit switching is ideal for scenarios in which a large amount of data needs to be transferred quickly, as the dedicated connection ensures that all the data will be sent and received without interruption. On the other hand, packet switching is more suited to smaller data transfers, as it allows greater distribution of data across multiple networks, making it more cost-effective and, in some cases, more secure.
6. Network Congestion and Performance
Network congestion can refer to the overcrowding of a network, resulting in a decline of its performance. This can mean that communication over the network becomes slower, as well as unreliable due to the increase in traffic waiting to get through. This can be a problem for applications that are reliant on the network for efficient data delivery and for the transmission of real-time or near real-time data that must be delivered in a timely manner. A congested network has several associated issues, such as delay, queuing delay, packet loss, and an increase in end-to-end delay. It can also result in a decrease in throughput.
6.1 Delay
Delay is the amount of time it takes a packet of data to travel from the source to its destination. Delays are typically measured in milliseconds (ms). Network congestion can cause delays, as it causes the amount of traffic traveling on the network to exceed the available bandwidth, resulting in packets jostling with one another for available resources.
6.2 Queuing Delay
Queuing delay is the amount of time it takes for packets to be stored in a queue for transmission to their destination. Queuing delay occurs when packets are queued at the router due to the router’s inability to keep up with the packet flow. This causes the router to buffer or hold packets in its memory until it has enough resources to process them.
6.3 Packet Loss
Packet loss is the percentage of packets that are dropped or discarded due to network congestion. Packet loss can occur when packets are dropped due to insufficient available bandwidth or when packets are too large to fit into the router’s buffer.
6.4 End-to-end Delay
End-to-end delay is the measure of how long it takes for a packet of data to travel from the source to its destination, taking into account all of the different delays incurred along the way (e.g. routing, processing, and transmission delays).
6.5 Throughput
Throughput is the measure of how much data a network can effectively process in a given period of time. In networks that experience congestion, throughput decreases as the number of packets being processed increases. Additionally, an increase in packet size can also adversely affect network throughput.
Network congestion and performance are two important aspects of the efficient passage of data throughout a network. Each of these aspects plays a pivotal role in the health and overall performance of a network and should be taken into account when deploying network designing solutions.
7. Protocol Stacks
Protocol stacks are an integral part of modern computer networks as they provide an effective way of communicating and exchanging data between computers. Through the use of these stacks, computers can send messages to each other through the use of a variety of protocols, increasing the efficiency and speed of communication. In this article, we will take a deeper look into how protocol stacks work, how the five-layer model of the computer network functions and the major protocol stacks that are commonly used today.
7.1 Encapsulation
Encapsulation is a computing concept that is used in computer networks to refer to the process of wrapping data in a protective layer. This layer is often an extra field or a header which is added to the beginning or end of the data packet, containing instructions that the recipient should use to identify the contents of the packet and determine how to interpret them. An example of the benefits of using encapsulation is that it can make communication of data more secure.
7.2 Five-layer Model
The five-layer model is an organizational model used in computer networks to describe the various protocol components of a stack. This model consists of five layers, each of which defines a specific set of responsibilities and associated protocols: the physical layer, the data link layer, the network layer, the transport layer, and the application layer. Each layer acts as a link between the others, with the data link layer working between the physical layer and the network layer, the transport layer working between the network layer and the application layer.
7.3 Major Protocol Stacks
The main protocol stacks used in computer networks are TCP/IP, ATM, and SNA. TCP/IP is the most widely-used protocol stack and is used for connecting computers and other devices to the Internet. ATM (Asynchronous transfer mode) is a high-speed, dedicated switching technology used for both local area networks and wide area networks. SNA (Systems Network Architecture) is a protocol stack developed by IBM for enterprise networks. These three protocol stacks cover most of the computer network layer requirements and have been widely adopted in many organizations.
8. Conclusion
In conclusion, physical infrastructure and network access devices are essential components in networking, and a proper understanding of physical media, core networks, and protocol stacks are vital for successful communication. The delay, queuing delay, packet loss, end-to-end delay, and throughput are important metrics that need to be monitored to ensure good network performance, while the five-layer model is an important tool for understanding the structure of different protocols and communications. All of these components and concepts come together in order to create the foundation of networking and networking technology.
